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Home Page > Business > Customer Service > Los Angeles Computer Repair

Los Angeles Computer Repair

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Posted: Mar 19, 2010 |Comments: 0

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Los Angeles Computer Repair

By: Harry Ebry

About the Author

DirectOnsite.com is an unlimited IT support company that focuses on providing their customers with best IT solutions. They specialize in computer repair, installation and support for small business owners in the Los Angeles area. They are different from other computer consulting firms and give promise for accurate billing, 100% money back guarantee, lightening fast repairs, response within 60 minutes, no geek speak and unexpected surprises.

(ArticlesBase SC #2012042)

Article Source: http://www.articlesbase.com/ – Los Angeles Computer Repair

The usage of computers has become unavoidable in today’s world. Everywhere we could see people using computers either for their professional work or for entertainment. With the increased usage, naturally, it is prone to get repaired easily. Professionals doing computer repair are highly benefitted due to this.

Selecting the best computer repair company will provide you a remarkable service. The people in Los Angeles are very lucky, as <a rel=”nofollow” onclick=”javascript:_gaq.push(['_trackPageview', '/outgoing/article_exit_link']);” href=http://www.directonsite.com/> Los Angeles computer repair </a> services provided, satisfies a large number of people. Gaining the trust and belief of the customers is very important for any company to flourish. This applies to the computer repair professionals too. Computer repairing means not only identifying and solving hardware problems it also includes solving your software problems, networking related issues and any kind of problems related to computers. The service rendered by the Los Angeles computer repair professionals is excellent and outstanding. They can help you in bringing out quick solutions to your computer related problems.

Failing to spot out the right computer professionals will lead to many problems. There are some unprofessional people in computer servicing who may not be able to sort out the problems properly, whose work may turn to be ineffective. This in turn will affect your computer.

It is your responsibility to find out the best computer repair professional. To find out the right person you may consult your friends and neighbors. You can also surf the net to find out the list of computer repair professionals.

Los Angeles computer repair professionals can be the best guide for your computer related troubles. It is their dedicating work which makes people to approach them persistently. In a very little time of receiving your complaint, they are at your place to service your computer. Every one looks for such a quick service. Many people don’t have patience till a computer technician reaches his place and they get tensed due to this. To avoid such a situation, remote support service is provided by the Los Angeles computer repair professionals.  This can be done through internet. Some of the technicians may cause damage to the unaffected parts of your computer. This will not happen in the case of Los Angeles computer repair professionals. They do the repairing service within the time they promised you. They also have a friendly relation with the customers.

Such a great quality of service can be obtained at an affordable rate. But some of the computer servicing company fails to give a quality service but cost you more. People are fed up by such services. Due to this they show reluctance in approaching the computer service professionals. But Los Angeles computer repair professionals are exception from this. Customer satisfaction is more important for them and hence they are doing a great job.

Los Angeles Computer Repair Companies

Computers have revolutionized today’s world and the usage of computers has become indispensable in our daily life. Computers are employed for domestic and commercial purposes. Computers get prone to repairs and computer services are necessary for people who run small businesses. Computer repair companies benefit more with the increased usage of computers these days.

Los Angeles is a rich place for IT business and business people there look for best Los Angeles computer repair services. Choosing a computer repair company that provides remarkable service satisfying a large number of customers is an essential task for business people. Customer satisfaction and feedback is the credit a company gets and it is vital for any company to boom. The same is the case of computer repair professionals. Computer repair services include identifying and solving hardware and software issues, network and network related issues and many more. Los Angeles computer repair companies have highly trained proficient team who render service by giving quick solutions to customers’ queries and giving them good response.

To run a business successfully, selecting good computer professionals is necessary. Some people who are in computer servicing do not know the latest advancements in software and find difficulty in solving IT problems. When you have such professionals to service your computers, you’ll definitely get into problems and all your business operations will get delayed. Before choosing, look on the web for computer service companies; consult with your friends and other business people and get a clear idea on which company to choose for you.

Los Angeles computer repair companies offer the best services and meet the requirements of clients. They increase their customer base with their excellent services and people therefore rely on these companies. Generally business people look for immediate response. This is what makes Los Angeles computer repair companies special, as they give quick response and provide service and repair your computers and networks within 24 hours. The remote service offered by these companies keeps business people relieved of issues in their networks. The services are highly reliable and guaranteed. Even professional come in person to take care of the network. They periodically monitor the performance of networks and computers and do required software upgrades and updates. They install the latest software and check the security of your computers to keep your systems free from virus and spyware attacks.

The services are furnished to customers at reasonable costs and are returned if customers are not satisfied with the services. Getting the partnership of such <a rel=”nofollow” onclick=”javascript:_gaq.push(['_trackPageview', '/outgoing/article_exit_link']);” href=http://www.directonsite.com/> Los Angeles computer repair </a> companies, will help business people in Los Angeles to thrive in their business.

Retrieved from “http://www.articlesbase.com/customer-service-articles/los-angeles-computer-repair-2012042.html”

(ArticlesBase SC #2012042)

Harry Ebry -
About the Author:

DirectOnsite.com is an unlimited IT support company that focuses on providing their customers with best IT solutions. They specialize in computer repair, installation and support for small business owners in the Los Angeles area. They are different from other computer consulting firms and give promise for accurate billing, 100% money back guarantee, lightening fast repairs, response within 60 minutes, no geek speak and unexpected surprises.

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The Legality of Unauthorized Access of Computer Data

The Legality of Unauthorized Access of Computer Data

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Home Page > Computers > The Legality of Unauthorized Access of Computer Data

The Legality of Unauthorized Access of Computer Data

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Posted: May 25, 2010
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The Legality of Unauthorized Access of Computer Data

By: Forest Mcbride

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Visit the Kangaroo Facts website to learn about kangaroo habitat and kangaroo food

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(ArticlesBase SC #2456619)

Article Source: http://www.articlesbase.com/ – The Legality of Unauthorized Access of Computer Data

Accessing e-mails or computer files by a spouse with the help of PIN(s) or Password of the other, but without their permission, is a clear violation of the Wiretap Statute. Nevertheless, it is a violation only if the information is in the transmission stage and not if it is in the post-transmission storage. Additionally, such illegal access of computer-related theft could summon criminal penalties too, under the aegis of a common-law tort of invasion of seclusion or invasion of privacy.

What is Wiretap Violation?

The basic rule of Wiretap Violation of the New Jersey Wiretap and Electronic Surveillance Control Act is that it is illegal to intercept any electronic, wire, or oral communications through mechanical, electronic, or any other devices. (N.J.S.A. 2A:156A-1, et seq). Hence, a spouse recording or retrieving e-mail transmissions or any other communication of the other spouse is an illegal act.

Nevertheless, there is an exception to this. A New Jersey trial court upholds that retrieving stored e-mail from the hard drive of the family’s computer does not amount to any unlawful access to stored electronic communications and is therefore not in violation of the New Jersey Wiretap Statute. This has reference to the following case:

White v. White, 344 N.J. Super 211 (Ch. Div. 2001)

In this case, the wife was accessing information by scouting through the different directories on the hard drive of the family’s computer. The Union County Court upheld the fact that this was not any act of wiretap violation.

The Court therefore drew a line of distinction between e-mails in active transmission and those in post transmission storage. E-mails in post transmission storage are outside definition of the ‘electronic storage’ as defined in the New Jersey Wiretap Act. Therefore, the wife having access to the family’s computer in the family room could access, retrieve, and use the husband’s e-mails stored in the family computer’s hard drive.

The wife does not need consent of the husband to use a Password or PIN (Personal Identification Number). The Court’s reasoning was that the husband could not have any objective reasonable expectation of privacy in the e-mails stored in the family’s computer as everyone had access to it and hence, there was no question of any privacy.

N.J.S.A. 2A:156A-27

According to The New Jersey Wiretap Statute, it is an offense invoking criminal penalties to access stored communications unlawfully.

The Statute states:

a. A person is guilty of a crime of the fourth degree if he
(1) Knowingly accesses a facility, providing electronic communication service without authorization or accesses the facility exceeding an authorization and

(2) Thereby alters, obtains, or prevents authorized access to electronic communication or a wire while it is still in electronic storage.

a. A person is guilty of a crime of the third-degree if he for the purpose of private commercial gain, commercial advantage, or malicious destruction or damage,

(1) Knowingly accesses a facility, providing electronic communication service without authorization or accesses the facility exceeding an authorization and
(2) Thereby alters, obtains, or prevents authorized access to an electronic communication or a write while it is still in electronic storage.

State v. Gaikwad, 349 N.J. Super 62 (App. Div. 2002)

In this case, the Defendant accessed accounts of various individuals, copied, and read their electronic mail and received sensitive information by accessing ATT’s computer system without authorization. The Appellate Division in Gaikwad defended Mr. Gaikwad’s conviction under N.J.S.A. 2A:156A-27b.

The Court’s ruling was that Gaikwad’s unauthorized and deliberate access, reading and copying of an electronic mail in storage in another’s mailbox is in violation to N.J.S.A. 2A:156A-27b. However, this ruling is in conflict with the trial court’s holding in White v. White. In the latter case, the court upheld that the statute is inapplicable to electronic communications received by the recipient and placed in post-transmission storage.
Theft of Computer Data

According to N.J.S.A. 2C:20-25

“A person is guilty of theft if he knowingly or purposely and without authorization:

(a) Alters, takes, damages, or destroys any data, computer program, database, computer software or computer equipment present internally or externally to a computer, computer system or computer network,

(b) Alters, takes, damages, or destroys a computer, computer system or computer network,

(c) accesses or tries to access any computer, computer system or computer network for executing a scheme or fraud, or to obtain services, property or money, from the owner of a computer or any third-party, or

(d) Alters, tampers with, obtains, intercepts, damages, or destroys a financial instrument.”

If any party uses any evidence or financial records in a divorce action, such information has little or no monetary value. According to N.J.S.A. 2C:20-29, it will be a petty disorderly person’s offense. The law defines the crime as:

‘A person is guilty of petty disorderly person’s offense if he knowingly or purposely accesses and recklessly alters, destroys, damages, or obtains any data, database, computer, computer program, computer software, computer equipment, computer system, or computer network with a value of 0 or less.’

2C:20-30. Damage or Wrongful Access to Computer System, No Accessible Damage; Degree of Crime
(L.1984, c.184, Sub. Section 9, eff. March 14, 1985)

A person is guilty of third-degree crime if he without authorization and purposely accesses, alters, destroys, or damages any parts of a computer system or the total system, where the accessing and altering cannot be assessed any monetary value or loss.

2C:20-31. Disclosure of Data from Wrongful Access; No assessable Damage; Degree of Crime
(L.1984, c.184, Sub. Section 10, eff. March 14, 1985)

A person is guilty of third-degree crime if he without authorization and purposely accesses any of the parts of a computer system or the total system itself and directly or indirectly discloses or causes to be disclosed data, data base, computer software or computer programs, where the accessing and disclosing cannot be assessed any monetary value or loss.

2C:20-32. Wrongful Access to Computer; Lack of Damage or Destruction; Disorderly Persons Offense
L.1984, c.184, Sub. Section 11, eff. March 14, 1985.

A person is guilty of a disorderly person’s offense if he purposely and without authorization accesses a computer or any of its parts but this does not result in the altering, damaging or destruction of any property or services.

Therefore, the conclusions drawn are that unauthorized use of PIN(s) or Password for receiving data stored in computers could be:

(a) data obtained from a computer system like a network of a corporation, business, or financial institution, or

(b) data unlawfully retrieved from a stand-alone computer.

The criminal penalties would apply based on the kind of violation. According to the Court’s ruling in Gaikwad case, the unlawful use of PIN(s) or Password to obtain records or information stored in computers fall into two different categories:

(1) N.J.S.A. 2C: 20-30 (wrongful access or damage to computer system) – Data retrieved from a computer system; for example, a company or corporation’s network, financial institution or business house.

(2) N.J.S.A. 2C:20-25 (computer related theft), N.J.S.A. 2C:20-29 and/or N.J.S.A. 2C:20-32 (wrongful access to computer) – Data illegally retrieved from an individual or stand-alone computer.

Besides the above, there is a common-law tort of invasion of privacy. Accordingly, an individual can be sued on the common-law cause of action, if a spouse obtains or steals the data or information in an offensive manner.

However, it is not clear whether accessing an electronically stored information or data in the post-transmission storage is a crime under N.J.S.A. 201256A-27(b).

Conclusion

New Jersey Divorce actions in unauthorized access to computer systems, stores files, PIN(s) or password(s) is evolving. The common-law tort of invasion of privacy offers a civil remedy if the unauthorized access of information is received from a person’s computer.

If the unauthorized access is from an electronic storage device (for example a computer system), there is a common-law tort of invasion of privacy. A spouse can also receive a civil remedy under the New Jersey Wiretap Statute. Besides, unauthorized access of a computer system will violate the criminal statutes of N.J.S.A. 2C:20-25, N.J.S.A. 2C:20-31, N.J.S.A. 2C:20-32 and N.J.S.A. 2C:20-30, or any one or combination of the above.

Therefore, if a person uses a PIN or Password or otherwise obtains personal data or information without permission of the spouse that deliberately intrudes on privacy, there is a remedy under the New Jersey law.

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Forest Mcbride -
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Visit the Kangaroo Facts website to learn about kangaroo habitat and kangaroo food

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Online Computer Forum And Support For Optimization

Online Computer Forum And Support For Optimization

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Home Page > Computers > Hardware > Online Computer Forum And Support For Optimization

Online Computer Forum And Support For Optimization

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Online Computer Forum And Support For Optimization

By: Lisa Collins

About the Author

My vision is to build for you an interactive platform through my online computer forums where you get all your PC-related know-how in one place. Visit my free online computer forum and see how you can benefit from your own one comprehensive tech help resource for all your PC-related referencing.

(ArticlesBase SC #1910519)

Article Source: http://www.articlesbase.com/ – Online Computer Forum And Support For Optimization

Today, as an online user of PC, you have at your disposal two power-packed resources for all your computer technology requirements. Your online computer forum and your online computer support provider. Your online computer forum and your online computer support provider are available for your use 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, and 365 days a year. While your online information technology forum is absolutely free for your use, you pay a very small fee to your online computer support provider for high-end computer consultancy. You make use of both your online resources as per your requirements. It may be a nighttime or a national holiday. Your online information technology forum and your online computer support provider are at your service at the touch of your fingertips. You instantly access them as and when required by you.

While you learn new things referring to high-quality computer contents in your free computer technology forum, you consult your expert Microsoft engineers at your online computer service provider for any specific course of action. You consult your online computer service provider for your high-end technical support consultancy. By remote outsourcing repair facility, your information technology experts at your computer support provider accesses your computer online. You now no more need to take your computer to your computer repair shop for any computer-related hurdle. Today, you consult your free tech support forum for fixing your computer hurdle. You can no more afford to waste your entire day on a single computer problem, while achieving very little at the end. It will be very frustrating for you to take your computer to your computer repair shop and at the end of the day being told that a single plug was not properly attached with your PC. Instead, you will now refer to your computer forum.

Your computer forum is today full of useful  tech help tips, computer-related articles and blogs. You will learn so many new and useful things about your personal computer use and maintenance. You will learn to make smart use of your own problem-solving skills to solve your computer problem. You will refer to high-quality interactive discussions between PC users as they solve their computer problem in real time. You will fix all your computer problems by working together with your PC friends and administrators. You will also help other PC users with your own experience. You will perform trouble shooting steps that will solve your entire computer problem. You will save a lot of time and money. You do not pay a single dollar for getting your computer problem solved this way. Nor do you waste your time on waiting for your computer technology engineers to arrive at your site. You get smart solution of your computer problem right at your office or your home.

You also be in charge of your PC. You no more look your PC with suspicion that may fail you anytime. Instead, when faced with a computer problem, you approach it scientifically. You fix your computer problem by referring to your computer forum. You trouble shoot your PC step-by-step. In case you understand that you now require high-end computer repair consultancy, you call your online computer support provider.

You take help of your online computer support provider over phone or using e-mail, chat, or video conferencing. Information technology experts in your online computer service provider will access your computer using remote computer repair facility and help you in your computer repair. You may also consult your computer support provider while installing, configuring, or updating any computer peripherals like computer printer, DVD camera, Wi-fi. Whatever your needs are as a PC user, today, you get one-to-one assistance from your online computer support provider for all your computer technology needs.

Today, with a good computer forum and an online computer support provider at your fingertips, you solve all your computer problems with ease and convenience.  You come closer to achieving zero-percent wastage of time and money because of computer repair and other PC bottlenecks. You achieve optimum performance of your PC.

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(ArticlesBase SC #1910519)

Lisa Collins -
About the Author:

My vision is to build for you an interactive platform through my online computer forums where you get all your PC-related know-how in one place. Visit my free online computer forum and see how you can benefit from your own one comprehensive tech help resource for all your PC-related referencing.

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COMPUTER VISION SYNDROME: AN UPDATE

COMPUTER VISION SYNDROME: AN UPDATE

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Home Page > Internet > Newsletters > COMPUTER VISION SYNDROME: AN UPDATE

COMPUTER VISION SYNDROME: AN UPDATE

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COMPUTER VISION SYNDROME: AN UPDATE

By: Kamal Singh Rathore

About the Author

Reader, Bhupal Nobles\’ Girls\’ College of Pharmacy, Udaipur-Raj.313002 INDIA Email: kamalsrathore@yahoo.com kamalsrathore@gmail.com Mobile: +919828325713

(ArticlesBase SC #1938126)

Article Source: http://www.articlesbase.com/ – COMPUTER VISION SYNDROME: AN UPDATE

                          

   COMPUTER VISION SYNDROME: AN UPDATE

   1Pooja Bagdi*, 1Swati Rathore, 2Kamal Singh Rathore

   1B.N. College of Pharmacy, Udaipur

   2B.N. Girls College of Pharmacy, Udaipur-Raj.

   pooja.bagdi2001@gmail.com

  +919828325713(M)

Vision is our most precious sense. Our eyes are in constant use every waking minute of every day. Vision disturbance is a silent enemy that only appears after a long period of continued stress.
INTRODUCTION
Computers have equalled the telephone is becoming the most indispensable piece of office equipment. Because computer use is such a high visually demanding task, vision problems and symptoms have become very common in today’s workplace. Most studies indicate that computer operators, who view their Video Display Terminals (VDTs), report more eye-related problems than non-VDT office workers. A number of investigators have indicated that visual symptoms occur in 75-90% of VDT workers. In contrast to the popular conception regarding carpal tunnel syndrome, a study released by NIOSH showed that only 22% of VDT worker. A survey of optometrists indicated that 10 million eye examinations are annually given in this country primarily because of visual problems at VDTs. This study delineated the series of symptoms which eventually became known as Computer Vision Syndrome (CVS). Computer Vision Syndrome describes a group of eye and vision-related problems that result from prolonged computer use. Many individuals experience eye discomfort and vision problems when viewing a computer screen for extended periods. The level of discomfort appears to increase with the amount of computer use.
CAUSES OF COMPUTER VISION SYNDROME
Viewing a computer screen often makes the eyes work harder. As a result, the unique characteristics and high visual demands of computer viewing make many individuals susceptible to the development of vision-related symptoms. Uncorrected vision problems can increase the severity of Computer Vision Syndrome symptoms. Viewing a computer screen is different than reading a printed page. Often the letters on the computer screen are not as precise or sharply defined, the level of contrast of the letters to the background is reduced, and the presence of glare and reflections on the screen may make viewing difficult.

Viewing distances and angles used for computer work are also often different from those commonly used for other reading or writing tasks. As a result, the eye focusing and eye movement requirements for computer viewing can place additional demands on the visual system. In addition, the presence of even minor vision problems can often significantly affect comfort and performance at a computer. Uncorrected or under corrected vision problems can be major contributing factors to computer-related eyestrain. In most cases, symptoms of CVS occur because the visual demands of the task exceed the visual abilities of the individual to comfortably perform them. At greatest risk for developing CVS are those persons who spend two or more continuous hours at a computer every day.
SYMPTOMS OF COMPUTER VISION SYNDROME
 • eye strain 
 • headaches 
 • blurred vision 
 • dry eyes 
 • neck and shoulder pain
These symptoms may be caused by: 
 • poor lighting 
 • glare on the computer screen 
 • improper viewing distances 
 • poor seating posture 
 • uncorrected vision problems 
 • a combination of these factors
The extent to which individuals experience visual symptoms often depends on the level of their visual abilities and the amount of time spent looking at the computer screen. Uncorrected vision problems like farsightedness and astigmatism, inadequate eye focusing or eye coordination abilities, and aging changes of the eyes, such as presbyopia, can all contribute to the development of visual symptoms when using a computer.
Many of the visual symptoms experienced by computer users are only temporary and will decline after stopping computer work. However, some individuals may experience continued reduced visual abilities, such as blurred distance vision, even after stopping work at a computer. If nothing is done to address the cause of the problem, the symptoms will continue to recur and perhaps worsen with future computer use.
Prevention or reduction of the vision problems associated with Computer Vision Syndrome involves taking steps to control lighting and glare on the computer screen, establishing proper working distances and posture for computer viewing, and assuring that even minor vision problems are properly corrected.
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY OF COMPUTER VISION SYNDROME
CVS is caused by decreased blinking reflex while working long hours focusing on computer screens. The normal blink rate in human eyes is 16–20 per minute. Studies have shown that the blink rate decreases to as low as 6–8 blinks/minute for persons working on the computer screen. This leads to dry eyes. Also, the near focusing effort required for such long hours puts strain on ciliary muscles of the eye. This induces symptoms of asthenopia and leads to a feeling of tiredness in the eyes after long hours of work. Some patients present with inability to properly focus on near objects after a short duration. This can be seen in people aged around 30–40 years of age, leading to a decrease in the accommodative focusing mechanisms of the eye. This can be a setting for early presbyopia.
DIAGNOSIS OF COMPUTER VISION SYNDROME
Computer Vision Syndrome can be diagnosed through a comprehensive eye examination. Testing, with special emphasis on visual requirements at the computer working distance, may include:
  Patient history to determine any symptoms the patient is experiencing and the presence of any general health problems, medications taken, or environmental factors that may be contributing to the symptoms related to computer use. Visual acuity measurements to assess the extent to which vision may be affected.  A refraction to determine the appropriate lens power needed to compensate for any refractive errors (nearsightedness, farsightedness or astigmatism).
Testing how the eyes focus, move and work together. In order to obtain a clear, single image of what is being viewed, the eyes must effectively change focus, move and work in unison. This testing will look for problems that keep your eyes from focusing effectively or make in this testing may be done without the use of eye drops to determine how the eyes respond under normal seeing conditions. In some cases, such as when some of the eyes’ focusing power may be hidden, eye drops may be used. They temporarily keep the eyes from changing focus while testing is done. Using the information obtained from these tests, along with results of other tests, your optometrist can determine if you have Computer Vision Syndrome and advise you on treatment options.
Therapy
Dry eye is a major symptom that is targeted in the therapy of CVS. The use of over-the-counter artificial-tear solutions can reduce the effects of dry eye in CVS. Asthenopic symptoms in the eye are responsible for much of the morbidity in CVS. Proper rest to the eye and its muscles is recommended to relieve the associated eye strain. Various catch-phrases have been used to spread awareness about giving rest to the eyes while working on computers. A routinely recommended approach is to consciously blink the eyes every now and then (this helps replenish the tear film) and to look out the window to a distant object or to the sky—doing so provides rest to the ciliary muscles. One of the catch phrases is the “20-20-20 rule”: every 20 minutes, focus the eyes on an object 20 feet (6 meters) away for 20 seconds. This basically gives a convenient distance and timeframe for a person to follow the advice from the optometrist and ophthalmologist. Otherwise, the patient is advised to close his/her eyes (which have a similar effect) for 20 seconds, at least every half hour.
Decreased focusing capability is mitigated by wearing a small plus-powered (+1.00 to +1.50) over-the-counter pair of eyeglasses. Wearing these eyeglasses helps such patients regain their ability to focus on near objects. People who are engaged in other occupations—such as tailors engaged in embroidery—can experience similar symptoms and can be helped by these glasses.
TREATMENT OF COMPUTER VISION SYNDROME
Solutions to computer-related vision problems are varied. However, CVS can usually be alleviated by obtaining regular eye care and making changes in how you view the computer screen.
Eye Care
In some cases, individuals who do not require the use of eyeglasses for other daily activities may benefit from glasses prescribed specifically for computer use. In addition, persons already wearing glasses may find their current prescription does not provide optimal vision for viewing a computer. Eyeglasses or contact lenses prescribed for general use may not be adequate for computer work. Lenses prescribed to meet the unique visual demands of computer viewing may be needed. Special lens designs, lens powers or lens tints or coatings may help to maximize visual abilities and comfort.
  Some computer users experience problems with eye focusing or eye coordination that can’t be adequately corrected with eyeglasses or contact lenses. A program of vision therapy may be needed to treat these specific problems. Vision therapy, also called visual training, is a structured program of visual activities prescribed to improve visual abilities. It trains the eyes and brain to work together more effectively. These eye exercises help remediate deficiencies in eye movement, eye focusing and eye teaming and reinforce the eye-brain connection. Treatment may include office-based as well as home training procedures.
 Viewing the Computer 
Some important factors in preventing or reducing the symptoms of CVS have to do with the computer and how it is used. This includes lighting conditions, chair comfort, location of reference materials, position of the monitor, and the use of rest breaks.
  Location of computer screen - Most people find it more comfortable to view a computer when the eyes are looking downward. Optimally, the computer screen should be 15 to 20 degrees below eye level (about 4 or 5 inches) as measured from the center of the screen and 20 to 28 inches from the eyes.
  Reference materials – These materials should be located above the keyboard and below the monitor. If this is not possible, a document holder can be used beside the monitor. The goal is to position the documents so you do not need to move your head to look from the document to the screen.
  Lighting - Position the computer screen to avoid glare, particularly from overhead lighting or windows. Use blinds or drapes on windows and replace the light bulbs in desk lamps with bulbs of lower wattage.
  Anti-glare screens - If there is no way to minimize glare from light sources, consider using a screen glare filter. These filters decrease the amount of light reflected from the screen.
  Seating position - Chairs should be comfortably padded and conform to the body. Chair height should be adjusted so your feet rest flat on the floor. If your chair has arms, they should be adjusted to provide arm support while you are typing. Your wrists shouldn’t rest on the keyboard when typing. 
  Rest breaks – To prevent eyestrain, try to rest your eyes when using the computer for long periods. Rest your eyes for 15 minutes after two hours of continuous computer use. Also, for every 20 minutes of computer viewing, look into the distance for 20 seconds to allow your eyes a chance to refocus.
  Blinking - To minimize your chances of developing dry eye when using a computer, make an effort to blink frequently. Blinking keeps the front surface of your eye moist.
Regular eye examinations and proper viewing habits can help to prevent or reduce the development of the symptoms associated with Computer Vision Syndrome.
REFERENCES
1. Thomson WD. Eye problems and visual display terminals–the facts and the fallacies. Ophthalmic Physiol Opt. Mar 1998; 18(2):111-9.
2. Sheedy JE. Vision problems at video display terminals: a survey of optometrists. J Am Optom Assoc. Oct 1992; 63(10):687-92.
3. Hales TR, Sauter SL, Peterson MR, Fine LJ, Putz-Anderson V, Schleifer LR, et al. Musculoskeletal disorders among visual display terminal users in a telecommunications company. Ergonomics. Oct 1994; 37(10):1603-21.
4. Yaginuma Y, Yamada H, Nagai H. Study of the relationship between lacrimation and blink in VDT work. Ergonomics. Jun 1990; 33(6):799-809.
5. Patel S, Henderson R, Bradley L, Galloway B, Hunter L. Effect of visual display unit use on blink rate and tear stability. Optom Vis Sci. Nov 1991; 68(11):888-92.
6. Biswas NR, Nainiwal SK, Das GK, Langan U, Dadeya SC, Mongre PK, et al. Comparative randomised controlled clinical trial of a herbal eye drop with artificial tear and placebo in computer vision syndrome. J Indian Med Assoc. Mar 2003; 101(3):208-9, 212.
7. Chaffin DB. Localized muscle fatigue–definiton and measurement. J Occup Med. Apr 1973; 15(4):346-54.
8. Eng WG. Survey on eye comfort in aircraft: I. Flight attendants. Aviat Space Environ Med. Apr 1979; 50(4):401-4.
9. Grandjean E, Hünting W, Nishiyama K. Preferred VDT workstation settings, body posture and physical impairments. Appl Ergon. Jun 1984; 15(2):99-104.
10. Gunnarsson E, Soderberg I. Eye strain resulting from VDT work at the Swedish telecommunications administration. Appl Ergon. Mar 1983; 14(1):61-9.
11. Izquierdo JC, Garcia M, Buxo C, Izquierdo NJ. Factors leading to the Computer Vision Syndrome: an issue at the contemporary workplace. Bol Asoc Med P R. Mar-Apr 2004; 96(2):103-10.
12. Liao GF, Zhong H, Jiang GH, Mu XF, Wu WC. [Measurement and evaluation of visual index in VDT operators under Multi-user system]. Space Med Med Eng (Beijing). Feb 2000; 13(1):61-4.
13. Schaumberg DA, Sullivan DA, Buring JE, Dana MR. Prevalence of dry eye syndrome among US women. Am J Ophthalmol. Aug 2003; 136(2):318-26.
14. Sheedy JE, Shaw-McMinn PG. Diagnosing and Treating Computer-Related Vision Problems. Boston: Butterworth Book Publishers; 2003.
15. Sotoyama M, Jonai H, Saito S, Villanueva MB. Analysis of ocular surface area for comfortable VDT workstation layout. Ergonomics. Jun 1996; 39(6):877-84.
16. Tsubota K, Nakamori K. Dry eyes and video display terminals. N Engl J Med. Feb 25 1993; 328(8):584.
17. Zheng Yan, Liang Hu, Hao Chen and Fan Lu: Computer Vision Syndrome: A widely spreading but largely unknown epidemic among computer users. Computers in Human Behavior, Volume 24, Issue 5, September 2008, Pages 2026-2042.

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Computers in some form are in almost everything these days.  From Toasters to Televisions, just about all electronic things has some form of processor in them.  This is a very large change from the way it used to be, when a computer that would take up an entire room and weighed tons of pounds has the same amount of power as a scientific calculator.  The changes that computers have undergone in the last 40 years have been colossal.  So many things have changed from the ENIAC that had very little power, and broke down once every 15 minutes and took another 15 minutes to repair, to our Pentium Pro 200′s, and the powerful Silicon Graphics Workstations, the core of the machine has stayed basically the same.  The only thing that has really changed in the processor is the speed that it translates commands from 1′s and 0′s to data that actually means something to a normal computer user.  Just in the last few years, computers have undergone major changes.  PC users came from using MS-DOS and Windows 3.1, to Windows 95, a whole new operating system.  Computer speeds have taken a huge increase as well, in 1995 when a  normal computer was a 486 computer running at 33 MHz, to 1997 where a blazing fast Pentium (AKA 586) running at 200 MHz plus.  The next generation of processors is slated to come out this year as well, being the next CPU from Intel, code named Merced, running at 233 MHz, and up.  Another major innovation has been the Internet.  This is a massive change to not only the computer world, but to the entire world as well.  The Internet has many different facets, ranging from newsgroups, where you can choose almost any topic to discuss with a range of many other people, from university professors, to professionals of the field of your choice, to the average person, to IRC, where you can chat in real time to other people around the world, to the World Wide Web, which is a mass of information networked from places around the world.  Nowadays, no matter where you look, computers are somewhere, doing something.

Changes in computer hardware and software have taken great leaps and jumps since the first video games and word processors.  Video games started out with a game called Pong…monochrome (2 colors, typically amber and black, or green and black), you had 2 controller paddles, and the game resembled a slow version of Air Hockey.  The first word processors had their roots in MS-DOS, these were not very sophisticated nor much better than a good typewriter at the time.  About the only benefits were the editing tools available with the word processors.  But, since these first two dinosaurs of software, they have gone through some major changes.  Video games are now placed in fully 3-D environments and word processors now have the abilities to change grammar and check your spelling.

Hardware has also undergone some fairly major changes.  When computers entered their 4th generation, with the 8088 processor, it was just a base computer, with a massive processor, with little power, running at 3-4 MHz, and there was no sound to speak of, other than blips and bleeps from an internal speaker.  Graphics cards were limited to two colors (monochrome), and RAM was limited to 640k and less.  By this time, though, computers had already undergone massive changes.  The first computers were massive beasts of things that weighed thousands of pounds.  The first computer was known as the ENIAC, it was the size of a room, used punched cards as input and didn’t have much more power than a calculator.  The reason for it being so large is that it used vacuum tubes to process data.  It also broke down very often…to the tune of once every fifteen minutes, and then it would take 15 minutes to locate the problem and fix it.  This beast also used massive amount of power, and people used to joke that the lights would dim in the city of origin whenever the computer was used.

The Early Days of Computers

The very first computer, in the roughest sense of the term, was the abacus.  Consisting of beads strung on wires, the abacus was the very first desktop calculator.  The first actual mechanical computer came from an individual named Blaise Pascal, who built an adding machine based on gears and wheels.  This invention did not become improved significantly until a person named Charles Babbage came along, who made a machine called the difference engine.  It is for this, that Babbage is known as the “Father of the Computer.”

Born in England in 1791, Babbage was a mathematician, and an inventor.  He decided a machine could be built to solve polynomial equations more easily and accurately by calculating the differences between them.  The model of this was named the Difference Engine.  The model was so well received that he began to build a full scale working version, with money that he received from the British Government as a grant.

Babbage soon found that the tightest design specifications could not produce an accurate machine.  The smallest imperfection was enough to throw the tons of mechanical rods and gears, and threw the entire machine out of whack.  After spending 17,000 pounds, the British Government withdrew financial support.  Even though this was a major setback, Babbage was not discouraged.  He came up with another machine of wheels and cogs, which he would call the analytical engine, which he hoped would carry out many different kinds of calculations.  This was also never built, at least by Babbage (although a model was put together by his son, later), but the main thing about this was it manifested five key concepts of modern computers –

· Input device

· Processor or Number calculator

· Storage unit to hold number waiting to be processed

· Control unit to direct the task waiting to be performed and the sequence of calculations

· Output device

Parts of Babbage’s inventions were similar to an invention built by Joseph Jacquard.  Jacquard, noting the repeating task of weavers working on looms, came up with a stiff card with a series of holes in it, to block certain threads from entering the loom and blocked others from completing the weave.  Babbage saw that the punched card system could be used to control the calculations of the analytical engine, and brought it into his machine.

Ada Lovelace was known as the first computer programmer.  Daughter of an English poet (Lord Byron), went to work with Babbage and helped develop instructions for doing calculations on the analytical engine.  Lovelace’s contributions were very great, her interest gave Babbage encouragement; she was able to see that his approach was workable and also published a series of notes that led others to complete what he prognosticated.

Since 1970, the US Congress required that a census of the population be taken every ten years.  For the census for 1880, counting the census took 71/2 years because all counting had to be done by hand.  Also, there was considerable apprehension in official society as to whether the counting of the next census could be completed before the next century.

A competition was held to find some way to speed the counting process.  In the final test, involving a count of the population of St. Louis, Herman Hollerith’s tabulating machine completed the count in only 51/2 hours.  As a result of his systems adoption, an unofficial count of the 1890 population was announced only six weeks after the census was taken.  Like the cards that Jacquard used for the loom, Hollerith’s punched cards also used stiff paper with holes punched at certain points.  In his tabulating machine, roods passed through the holes to complete a circuit, which caused a counter to advance one unit.  This capability pointed up the principal difference between the analytical engine and the tabulating machine; Hollerith was able to use electrical power rather than mechanical power to drive the device.

Hollerith, who had been a statistician with the Census Bureau, realized that the punched card processing had high potential for sales.  In 1896, he started the Tabulating Machine Company, which was very successful in selling machines to railroads and other clients.  In 124, this company merged with two other companies to form the International Business Machines Corporation, still well known today as IBM.

IBM, Aiken & Watson

For over 30 years, from 1924 to 1956, Thomas Watson, Sr., ruled IBM with an iron grip.  Before becoming the head of IBM, Watson had worked for the Tabulating Machine Company.  While there, he had a running battle with Hollerith, whose business talent did not match his technical abilities.  Under the lead of Watson, IBM became a force to be reckoned with in the business machine market, first as a purveyor of calculators, then as a developer of computers.

IBM’s entry into computers was started by a young person named Howard Aiken.  In 1936, after reading Babbage’s and Lovelace’s notes, Aiken thought that a modern analytical engine could be built.  The important difference was that this new development of the analytical engine would be electromechanical.  Because IBM was such a power in the market, with lots of money and resources, Aiken worked out a proposal and approached Thomas Watson.  Watson approved the deal and give him 1 million dollars in which to make this new machine, which would later be called the Harvard Mark I, which began the modern era of computers.

Nothing close to the Mark I had ever been built previously.  It was 55 feet long and 8 feet high, and when it processed information, it made a clicking sound, equivalent to (according to one person) a room full of individuals knitting with metal needles.  Released in 1944, the sight of the Mark I was marked by the presence of many uniformed Navy officers.  It was now W.W.II and Aiken had become a naval lieutenant, released to Harvard to help build the computer that was supposed to solve the Navy’s obstacles.

During the war, German scientists made impressive advances in computer design.  In 1940 they even made a formal development proposal to Hitler, who rejected farther work on the scheme, thinking the war was already won.  In Britain however, scientists succeeded in making a computer called Colossus, which helped in cracking supposedly unbreakable German radio codes.  The Nazis unsuspectingly continued to use these codes throughout the war.  As great as this accomplishment is, imagine the possibilities if the reverse had come true, and the Nazis had the computer technology and the British did not.

In the same time frame, American military officers approached Dr. Mauchly at the University of Pennsylvania and asked him to develop a machine that would quickly calculate the trajectories for artillery and missiles.  Mauchly and his student, Presper Eckert, relied on the work of Dr. John Atanasoff, a professor of physics at Iowa State University.

During the late ’30′s, Atanasoff had spent time trying to build an electronic calculating device to help his students solve complicated math problems.  One night, the idea came to him for linking the computer memory and the associated logic.  Later, he and an associate, Clifford Berry, succeeded in building the “ABC,” for Atanasoff-Berry Computer.  After Mauchly met with Atanasoff and Berry, he used the ABC as the basis for the next computer development.  From this association ultimately would come a lawsuit, considering attempts to get patents for a commercial version of the machine that Mauchly built.  The suit was finally decided in 1974, when it was decided that Atanasoff had been the true developer of the ideas required to make an electronic digital computer actually work, although some computer historians dispute this decision.  But during the war years, Mauchly and Eckert were able to use the ABC principals in dramatic effect to create the ENIAC.

 

Computers Become More Powerful

The size of ENIAC’s numerical “word” was 10 decimal digits, and it could multiply two of

these numbers at a rate of 300 per second, by finding the value of each product from a

Multiplication table stored in its memory. ENIAC was about 1000 times faster than the previous generation of computers. ENIAC used 18,000 vacuum tubes, about 1,800 square feet of floor space, and consumed about 180,000 watts of electrical power. It had punched card input, 1 multiplier, 1 divider/square rooter, and 20 adders using decimal ring counters, which served as adders and also as quick-access (.0002 seconds) read-write register storage. The executable

instructions making up a program were embodied in the separate “units” of ENIAC, which

were plugged together to form a “route” for the flow of information.  The problem with the ENIAC was that the average life of a vacuum tube is 3000 hours, and a vacuum tube would then burn out once every 15 minutes.  It would take on average 15 minutes to find the burnt out tube and replace it.

Enthralled by the success of ENIAC, the mathematician John Von Neumann undertook, in 1945, a study of computation that showed that a computer should have a very basic, fixed physical construction, and yet be able to carry out any kind of computation by means of a proper programmed control without the need for any change in the unit itself. Von Neumann contributed a new consciousness of how sensible, yet fast computers should be organized and assembled. These ideas, usually referred to as the stored-program technique, became important for future generations of high-speed digital computers and were wholly adopted. The Stored-Program technique involves many features of computer design and function besides the one that it is named after.  In combination, these features make very high speed operations attainable. An impression may be provided by considering what 1,000 operations per second means. If each instruction in a job program were used once in concurrent order, no human programmer could induce enough instruction to keep the computer busy. Arrangements must be made, consequently, for parts of the job program (called subroutines) to be used repeatedly in a manner that depends on the way the computation goes. Also, it would clearly be helpful if instructions could be changed if needed during a computation to make them behave differently. Von Neumann met these two requirements by making a special type of machine instruction, called a Conditional control transfer — which allowed the program sequence to be stopped and started again at any point – and by storing all instruction programs together with data in the same memory unit, so that, when needed, instructions could be changed in the same way as data.

As a result of these techniques, computing and programming became much faster, more flexible, and more efficient with work.  Regularly used subroutines did not have to be reprogrammed for each new program, but could be kept in “libraries” and read into memory only when needed. Hence, much of a given program could be created from the subroutine library.  The computer memory became the collection site in which all parts of a long computation were kept, worked on piece by piece, and put together to form the final results.  When the advantage of these techniques became clear, they became a standard practice.

The first generation of modern programmed electronic computers to take advantage of these improvements was built in 1947.  This group included computers using Random- Access-Memory (RAM), which is a memory designed to give almost constant access to any particular piece of information. . These machines had punched-card or tape I/O devices.  Physically, they were much smaller than ENIAC. Some were about the size of a grand piano and used only 2,500 electron tubes, a lot less then required by the earlier ENIAC. The first-generation stored-program computers needed a lot of maintenance, reached probably about 70 to 80% reliability of operation (ROO) and were used for 8 to 12 years.  This group of computers included EDVAC and UNIVAC, the first commercially available computers.

Early in the 50′s two important engineering discoveries changed the image of the electronic-computer field, from one of fast but unreliable hardware to an image of relatively high reliability and even more capability. These discoveries were the magnetic core memory and the Transistor – Circuit Element. These technical discoveries quickly found their way into new models of digital computers. RAM capacities increased from 8,000 to 64,000 words in commercially available machines by the 1960′s, with access times of 2 to 3 MS (Milliseconds). These machines were very expensive to purchase or even to rent and were particularly expensive to operate because of the cost of expanding programming. Such computers were mostly found in large computer centers operated by industry, government, and private laboratories — staffed with many programmers and support personnel. This situation led to modes of operation enabling the sharing of the high potential available.  During this time, another important development was the move from machine language to assembly language, also known as symbolic languages.  Assembly languages use abbreviations for instructions rather than numbers.  This made programming a computer a lot easier.

After the implementation of assembly languages came high-level languages.  The first language to be universally accepted was a language by the name of FORTRAN, developed in the mid 50′s as an engineering, mathematical, and scientific language.  Then, in 1959, COBOL was developed for business programming usage.  Both languages, still being used today, are more English like than assembly.  Higher level languages allow programmers to give more attention to solving problems rather than coping with the minute details of the machines themselves.  Disk storage complimented magnetic tape systems and enabled users to have rapid access to data required.

All these new developments made the second generation computers easier and less costly to operate.  This began a surge of growth in computer systems, although computers were being mostly used by business, university, and government establishments.  They had not yet been passed down to the general public.  The real part of the computer revolution was about to begin.

One of the most abundant elements in the earth is silicon; a non-metal substance found in sand as well as in most rocks and clay.  The element has given rise to the name “Silicon Valley” for Santa Clara County, about 50 km south of San Francisco.  In 1965, Silicon valley became the principle site of the computer industry, making the so-called silicon chip.

An integrated circuit is a complete electronic circuit on a small chip of silicon.  The chip may be less than 3mm square and contain hundreds to thousands of electronic components.  Beginning in 1965, the integrated circuit began to replace the transistor in machines was now called third-generation computers.  An Integrated Circuit was able to replace an entire circuit board of transistors  with one chip of silicon much smaller than one transistor.  Silicon is used because it is a semiconductor.  It is a crystalline substance that will conduct electric current when it has been doped with chemical impurities shot onto the structure of the crystal.  A cylinder of silicon is sliced into wafers, each about 76mm in diameter.  The wafer is then etched repeatedly with a pattern of electrical circuitry.  Up to ten layers may be etched onto a single wafer.  The wafer is then divided into several hundred chips, each with a circuit so small it is half the size of a fingernail; yet under a microscope, it is complex as a railroad yard.  A chip 1 centimeter square it is so powerful that it can hold 10,000 words, about the size of an average newspaper.

Integrated circuits entered the market with the simultaneous announcement in 1959 by Texas Instruments and Fairchild Semiconductor that they had each independently produced chips containing several complete electronic circuits.  The chips were hailed as a generational breakthrough because they had four desirable characteristics.

· Reliability – They could be used over and over again without failure, whereas vacuum tubes failed ever fifteen minutes.  Chips rarely failed — perhaps one in 33 million hours of operation.  This reliability was due not only to the fact that they had no moving parts but also that semiconductor firms gave them a rigid work/not work test.

· Compactness – Circuitry packed into a small space reduces equipment size.  The machine      speed is increased because circuits are closer together, thereby reducing the travel time for the electricity.

· Low Cost – Mass-production techniques has made possible the manufacture of inexpensive integrated circuits.  That is, miniaturization has allowed manufacturers to produce many chips inexpensively.

· Low power use — Miniaturization of integrated circuits has meant that less power is required for computer use than was required in previous generations.  In an energy-conscious time, this was important.

The Microprocessor

Throught the 1970′s, computers gained dramatically in speed, reliability, and storage capacity, but entry into the fourth generation was evolutionary rather than revolutionary.  The fourth generation was, in fact, furthering the progress of the third generation.  Early in the first part of the third generation, specialized chips were developed for memory and logic.  Therefore, all parts were in place for the next technological development, the microprocessor, or a general purpose processor on a chip.  Ted Hoff of Intel developed the chip in 1969, and the microprocessor became commercially available in 1971.

Nowadays microprocessors are everywhere.  From watches, calculatores and computers, processors can be found in virtually every machine in the home or business.  Environments for computers have changed, with no more need for climate-controlled rooms  and most models of microcomputers can be placed almost anywhere.

New Stuff

After the technoligical improvements in the 60′s and the 70′s, computers haven’t gotten much different, aside from being faster, smaller and more user friendly.  The base architecture of the computer itself is fundementally the same.  New improvements from the 80′s on have been more “Comfort Stuff”, those being sound cards (For hi-quality sound and music), CD-ROMs (large storage capicity disks), bigger monitors and faster video cards.  Computers have come a long way, but there has not really been alot of vast technological improvements, architecture-wise.

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The Evolution of Technology – The History of Computers

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The Evolution of Technology – The History of Computers

By: David Kevin

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(ArticlesBase SC #2745122)

Article Source: http://www.articlesbase.com/ – The Evolution of Technology – The History of Computers

While computers are now an important part of the lives of human beings, there was a time where computers did not exist. Knowing the history of computers and how much progression has been made can help you understand just how complicated and innovative the creation of computers really is.

Unlike most devices, the computer is one of the few inventions that does not have one specific inventor. Throughout the development of the computer, many people have added their creations to the list required to make a computer work. Some of the inventions have been different types of computers, and some of them were parts required to allow computers to be developed further.

The Beginning

Perhaps the most significant date in the history of computers is the year 1936. It was in this year that the first “computer” was developed. It was created by Konrad Zuse and dubbed the Z1 Computer. This computer stands as the first as it was the first system to be fully programmable. There were devices prior to this, but none had the computing power that sets it apart from other electronics.

It wasn’t until 1942 that any business saw profit and opportunity in computers. This first company was called ABC computers, owned and operated by John Atanasoff and Clifford Berry. Two years later, the Harvard Mark I computer was developed, furthering the science of computing.

Over the course of the next few years, inventors all over the world began to search more into the study of computers, and how to improve upon them. Those next ten years say the introduction of the transistor, which would become a vital part of the inner workings of the computer, the ENIAC 1 computer, as well as many other types of systems. The ENIAC 1 is perhaps one of the most interesting, as it required 20,000 vacuum tubes to operate. It was a massive machine, and started the revolution to build smaller and faster computers.

The age of computers was forever altered by the introduction of International Business Machines, or IBM, into the computing industry in 1953. This company, over the course of computer history, has been a major player in the development of new systems and servers for public and private use. This introduction brought about the first real signs of competition within computing history, which helped to spur faster and better development of computers. Their first contribution was the IBM 701 EDPM Computer.

A Programming Language Evolves

A year later, the first successful high level programming language was created. This was a programming language not written in ‘assembly’ or binary, which are considered very low level languages. FORTRAN was written so that more people could begin to program computers easily.

The year 1955, the Bank of America, coupled with Stanford Research Institute and General Electric, saw the creation of the first computers for use in banks. The MICR, or Magnetic Ink Character Recognition, coupled with the actual computer, the ERMA, was a breakthrough for the banking industry. It wasn’t until 1959 that the pair of systems were put into use in actual banks.

During 1958, one of the most important breakthroughs in computer history occurred, the creation of the integrated circuit. This device, also known as the chip, is one of the base requirements for modern computer systems. On every motherboard and card within a computer system, are many chips that contain information on what the boards and cards do. Without these chips, the systems as we know them today cannot function.

Gaming, Mice, & the Internet

For many computer users now, games are a vital part of the computing experience. 1962 saw the creation of the first computer game, which was created by Steve Russel and MIT, which was dubbed Spacewar.

The mouse, one of the most basic components of modern computers, was created in 1964 by Douglass Engelbart. It obtained its name from the “tail” leading out of the device.

One of the most important aspects of computers today was invented in 1969. ARPA net was the original Internet, which provided the foundation for the Internet that we know today. This development would result in the evolution of knowledge and business across the entire planet.

It wasn’t until 1970 that Intel entered the scene with the first dynamic RAM chip, which resulted in an explosion of computer science innovation.

On the heels of the RAM chip was the first microprocessor, which was also designed by Intel. These two components, in addition to the chip developed in 1958, would number among the core components of modern computers.

A year later, the floppy disk was created, gaining its name from the flexibility of the storage unit. This was the first step in allowing most people to transfer bits of data between unconnected computers.

The first networking card was created in 1973, allowing data transfer between connected computers. This is similar to the Internet, but allows for the computers to connect without use of the Internet.

Household PC’s Emerge

The next three years were very important for computers. This is when companies began to develop systems for the average consumer. The Scelbi, Mark-8 Altair, IBM 5100, Apple I and II, TRS-80, and the Commodore Pet computers were the forerunners in this area. While expensive, these machines started the trend for computers within common households.

One of the most major breathroughs in computer software occurred in 1978 with the release of the VisiCalc Spreadsheet program. All development costs were paid for within a two week period of time, which makes this one of the most successful programs in computer history.

1979 was perhaps one of the most important years for the home computer user. This is the year that WordStar, the first word processing program, was released to the public for sale. This drastically altered the usefulness of computers for the everyday user.

The IBM Home computer quickly helped revolutionize the consumer market in 1981, as it was affordable for home owners and standard consumers. 1981 also saw the the mega-giant Microsoft enter the scene with the MS-DOS operating system. This operating system utterly changed computing forever, as it was easy enough for everyone to learn.

The Competition Begins : Apple vs. Microsoft

Computers saw yet another vital change during the year of 1983. The Apple Lisa computer was the first with a graphical user interface, or a GUI. Most modern programs contain a GUI, which allows them to be easy to use and pleasing for the eyes. This marked the beginning of the out dating of most text based only programs.

Beyond this point in computer history, many changes and alterations have occurred, from the Apple-Microsoft wars, to the developing of microcomputers and a variety of computer breakthroughs that have become an accepted part of our daily lives. Without the initial first steps of computer history, none of this would have been possible.

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Natural computation:A Philosophy

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Home Page > Computers > Information Technology > Natural computation:A Philosophy

Natural computation:A Philosophy

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Natural Computation-A Philosophy.

Oluwayomi.O.Oluwadara,

School of Technology,

St Patrick’s College,

W1F 8FS,London

1st June 2010.

Abstract: This piece clearly highlights the philosophy behind the field of natural Computation. It goes further to evaluate some basic computational architectures that are nature inspired

Background

The present day computing has provided solutions to almost every task man can think of except for the “tomorrow world”-the stage of ubiquitousness. Sequel upon this, the challenge of the future is to harness all it takes to make natural computing work for us. Proponents of natural computing has discovered that the present day Alan Turin-Von Neumann architecture (classical model) enclosed in its silicon casing alone can not take us to the envisioned “tomorrow world”. As a result of this, attention was shifted from this architecture to that of natural computing. It must be stressed that this current classical model has tried reaching this “tomorrow world” with the current trend. Products of their effort have resulted in Neural Networks (Simulating the functionality of the brain), Evolutionary Computing (Emulating the nature), Quantum Computing (has to do with the universe) and DNA computing. These asides, researches are still on going on how the current classical model could be abandoned in order to achieve al the goals of natural computing.

In essence, computer scientists are trying to achieve the “tomorrow world” using the current classical model in diverse areas, while there are on going efforts to abandon this classical model for some other ones in order to achieve the goal of ubiquitousness.

 

Why Natural Computing.

Only natural computing seem to proffer a lasting solution to the human desire for the overwhelming desire to achieve a perfect digitalized world which I will seldomly refer to as tomorrow world. According to De Castro (2006), natural computing is the terminology introduced to encompass these three types of approaches, named, respectively: 1) computing inspired by nature: 2) the simulation and emulation of natural phenomena in computers: and 3) computing with natural materials.

A major reason that substantiates the idea of further study and research in natural computing is not far fetched. There must be a solution for complex tasks that could not be readily computable .For example, task of making human decisions, task of making food in the kitchen e.t.c As a result of this, the simulation of how nature solves this kind of problem is helpful: this is where natural computing comes in. For the sake of brevity, natural computing can be described as a way of employing nature to solve ambiguous problems.

 

The Evolution of Natural computing.

I would say that natural computing has evolved from the era of Alan Turin- Von Neumann architecture for solving complex problems to the stage of Computational Biology. Scientist, after various researches concluded that the tomorrow world could be achieved by the complex interaction of Biology and Computer. As indicated by Lyngso (2001), computational biology is concerned with the use of computers for biological problems, most prominently problems in evolutionary and molecular biology. This area is also referred to as bioinformatics and these two terms are often used interchangeably. It can therefore be inferred that the combination of natural knowledge from nature-Biology coupled with computing will definitely provide an alternative to the existing architecture.

 

Simply put, natural computing is the act of building a computational model for problem solving that is nature inspired. As stated earlier, based on the current architecture, science has tried its hardest to compute naturally and based on this great effort, they have achieved success in the below application areas:

-Evolutionary Computing

-Neural Computing

-Swarm Computing.

 

Evolutionary Computing: This can be described as the computational solution method that is based on the finding of the renown biologist-Charles Darwin. Eiben and Smith (2007), claimed that Evolutionary Computing is the collective name for a range of problem-solving techniques based on principles of biological evolution, such as natural selection and genetic inheritance.  These techniques are being increasingly widely applied to a variety of problems, ranging from practical applications in industry and commerce to leading edge scientific research. One can infer from the author of this book that science has adapted the findings of the great Darwin to solve complex present day problems. It must also be recalled however that this experimentations are being carried out on “old” classical model. Derivatives and merits that arose as a result of evolutionary computing involves genetic algorithm, genetic programming, evolutionary hardware, artificial life and artificial immune system.

Neural Network /Computing:Neural networks are based on the parallel architecture of human brain. Basically, they are formed to simulate how the neurons in the human body work by transmitting signals from one to the other. A major difference between the human neurons and neural networks is that the former just take action naturally while the latter has to be trained. Mathematics has discovered the learning rate of training the neural network. It has been proved that if the error result is zero or so close to zero, neural network has learnt. As it turns out to be, they can also be described as some form of multiprocessor computer system with simple processing elements with a high degree of interconnection. Plus, they have got a simple scalar messages and adaptive interaction between elements. Neural Networks, because of their ability to learn (using certain learning algorithms) has been applied in diverse field in human endeavors. Common among them are face, voice and motion detection.

Recently, Jain (2010) proved that neural networks have also been widely synergized with other machine learning and complementary techniques to achieve improvements in robustness, adaptivity, and applicability.

 

Swarm Intelligence: Swarm intelligence can be likened to the scenario whereby the behavioral attitudes of social insects (ants, bees, termites e.t.c) are being computerized. A swarm has been defined as a set of (mobile) agents which are liable to communicate directly or indirectly (by acting on their local environment) with each other, and which collectively carry out a distributed problem solving. Based on this generalized concept of a swarm, French researchers have actually been able to simulate the termite’s nest-building behavior on a computer by applying a very simple “stigmergic algorithm”Deneubourg et al. (1992).

It can therefore be inferred that swarm intelligence is a design framework based on social insect behavior. These social insects are unique in the way these simple individuals cooperate to accomplish complex difficult tasks. The idea behind this fact has been used to design certain algorithms that can be used to solve human complex problems. Currently the application of swarm intelligence is helping in resolving issues in mobile ad-hoc networks.

 

Classification of Natural Computing.

Although there are on-going research in natural computation, but experts has identified three major classes. They are computing with natural materials, simulation and emulation of natured inspired by computing and computing inspired by nature. It must be noted that each of them has gotten different application areas.

 

Nature Inspired Computing (NIC): In this scenario, solution to problems are designed after, or inspired by nature. It must ne noted that the solution, probably some kind of algorithm is implemented using the current architecture. As Indicated by world of computing, (2010), Nature Inspired Computing (NIC) is one that aims to develop new computing techniques after getting ideas by observing how nature behaves in various situations to solve complex problems. Research on NIChas opened new branches such as evolutionary computation, neural networks, artificial immune systems, swarm intelligence, and so on.

A primary subset of NIC is known as Biology Inspired Computing. Relative to normal computing, there are significant differences in biology inspired computing. The biological system seems to respond quite slowly but they do implement much higher-level operations. To justify the effort of researchers in this endeavor, an algorithm, inspired by ant colonies that exhibit swarm intelligence has already been developed. Apart from swarm intelligence algorithm. It must also be noted that NIC has also made measurable success in Genetic algorithms, Neural Networks, Artificial Intelligence systems and cellular automata.

As a recap, NIC-solution that are nature inspired are; according to World of Computing (2010); flexible that they can be applied to wide range of problems, so adaptable that they can deal with unseen data and capable of learning, so robust that they can handle incomplete data. They have decentralized control of computational activities.

 

Simulation and Emulation of nature by means of Computing

As the name implies, this branch of natural computing imitates the way nature solve problems and tend to apply computing to it. It simulates the biological solution to complex problems and solves real life problems by their corresponding computing solutions. Again, De Castro (2006) stated that there are two main approaches to the simulation and emulation of nature in computers: by using artificial life techniques or by using tools for studying the fractal geometry of nature. This simply means that either of those two applications can be adopted in providing a nature-simulated solution to solve complex problem.

 

Computing with Natural Materials: The current Alan Turing-Von Neumann architecture has been implemented on silicon casings and has really helped a lot. Frankly speaking, computer scientists have gone as far as trying to achieve the “tomorrow world” by using some ideas of natural computing with the existing architecture. The question that arises as a result of this endeavor is that, will it be possible to fully attain the stage of ubuquitoisness? However, it is no news that a separate architecture, based on molecules (membrane computing) that has negligible limit need to be in place to achieve the ultimate goal.

To this effect, there must be a replacement for the silicon based computers and I totally concur with current researchers that are trying to design computers with DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)-DNA computing, RNA (ribonucleic acid) and machines that will not allow quantum effects. As indicated in Mendonca (2006), DNA computing is one particular component of a large field called molecular computing that can be broadly defined as the use of (bio) molecules and bimolecular operations to solve problems and to perform computation. It was introduced by L. Adleman in 1994 when he solved an NP-complete problem using DNA molecules and bimolecular techniques for manipulating DNA.

 

Conclusion and Inference

Despite the current technology, and rapid advances in every field, there are still some problems that continue to elude scientists. From my own angle, a major concern is -will the current classical model alone be able to completely achieve the tomorrow world? Or, is there need for science to completely abandon this architecture and build from the nature to achieve the optimal result of natural computing.

So far, science has despite the limits of the Alan Turing-Von Neumann architecture, developed algorithms that attempts to solve problems that are so complex but readily solve by nature. The application of such is evident in neural computing, swarm intelligence e.t.c. In conclusion, I strongly concur to the fact that the overall shift to computing with natural materials will eventually be the best mechanism to achieving the “magic” of computational biology.

References.

De Casro, N. (2006), Fundamentals of natural computing: basic concepts, algorithms, and application, [online], Boca Raton, Chapman and Hall: Available from, http://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=en&lr=&id=N6iYpNVP9RgC&oi=fnd&pg=PA1&dq=Evoulution+of+natural+computing&ots=iiv19X9yjm&sig=y96f8Fw5CwPdMzOkW9VCOvJnm5U#v=onepage&q&f=false [Accessed:8/6/2010].

Lyngso, R.B, (2001), Computational Biology, A dissertation presented to the faculty of science as a second mandatory assignment in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the PhD degree, University of Aarhus.

Mendonca, C, (2006); Review of Fundamentals of Natural computing, [Online], Available from http://research.cs.queensu.ca/home/akl/cisc879/2009/Fundamentals_of_natural_computing_an_overview.pdf

 

Eiben, A.E and Smith, J.E, (2007); Introduction to Evolutionary Computing,Jain,C.L, (2010); Advances in design and application of neural networks , In; Neural Computing And Application;, Volume 19, p.167-168,

Deneubourg, Jean-Louis, Guy Theraulaz and Ralph Beckers. (1992): Swarm-made architectures, in: Varela, Francisco and P. Bourgine (eds.), Toward a practice of autonomous systems. Proceedings of the First European Conference on Artificial Life, Paris, 123-133. Cambridge: MIT Press.

 

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Oluwayomi Oluwadara -
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Oluwayomi.O.Oluwadara,

School of Technology,

St Patrick’s College,

W1F 8FS,London

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philosophy, natural computation, neural network, computing inspired by nature, swarm intelligence, evolutionary computing, computational biology, membrane computing, dna computing, alan turing von neumann

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Article Source: http://www.articlesbase.com/ – Green Computing With Refurbished Laptops

We no longer live in the ‘throw away’ age of discarding products simply because they have developed a small fault or we are after the latest and greatest new model. Protecting our Earth is now a big priority for most people and businesses, therefore we are adapting our lifestyles to do everything we can to help preserve our planet for future generations. Instead of throwing a laptop in the bin simply because one of the components has failed or it is no longer considered to be up-to-date, more and more people are turning to recycling or ‘refurbishing’ as an environmentally sound option.

Recycling can be done in a number of ways, selling the laptop for spares, donating it to charities that supply third world countries or by selling it to a refurbishing company such as Eflex Computers Companies such as this will offer you money for old laptops, whether they function or not, and then refurbish them and put them back into the marketplace. The refurbishing process is carried out by professionals and incorporates the following stages.

The laptop is fully wiped of all personal data, programs, software etc and taken to a ‘blank’ state. This not only protects the previous owner from having any information stolen but also ensures the system is totally clean of any viruses or issues that could prevent it functioning properly. The hardware then undergoes rigorous testing to ensure that all of the components are functioning correctly and that they still have a good life left in them. If any of the components aren’t functioning correctly or are identified as only having a short life span left they are replaced with new parts. Fresh versions of all the software including operating system, required drivers, anti-virus programs etc are then re-installed on the laptop effectively returning it to the same state as when it was first sent out of the factory.

Refurbished laptops are generally considered by a lot of people to more reliable then systems bought directly after manufacture. This is due the fact they have been operated for some time and so any issues with faulty hardware have been picked up and resolved.

Refurbished laptops offer a lot of benefits over buying a new model. The instant one you will see is the huge savings you can make on the price. For the sake of some cosmetic marks that wont effect functionality at all you can save up to 50% on high street prices. The second benefit is the huge impact on the environment. New laptops produce a lot of harmful gases and toxins during the manufacturing process that damage our environment. The refurbished option means 1 less new laptop being manufactured and 1 less old laptop sitting on the local tip!

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Eflex Computers team members date!

You know how you can always tell when someone is feeling particularly pleased with themselves, and that when that look is on a bloke it usually means he has scored with the opposite sex? Well you should have seen Paul’s face yesterday. Talk about Cheshire Cat.

Although he persisted in denying it most of the morning, it was clear to everyone that Paul must have met someone, somehow, somewhere. But he remained tight-lipped, despite his lips being permanently stretched in this perpetual grin. You could just see the boy was in love.

Alex became immediately jealous, and Gary and Kirstie began reminiscing on how they first met by chance in Asda’s cheap crisp aisle.

But Paul wasn’t giving anything away…until someone mentioned match.com and there was a sudden glimmer of recognition in Paul’s eyes, and it was clear he had been putting his computer to good use at last.

Of course Paul was really dying to tell everyone all about this goddess, and his resistance finally broke during elevenses when, with everyone gathered around the percolator, Paul recounted his bubbling, passionate affair with the girl of his dreams.

Giselle.

“What is she like, what is she like,” Kirstie twittered excitedly, hopping up and down, but no description was forthcoming.

But then it transpired that, despite his excitement, Paul hadn’t actually seen what the girl of his dreams looked like. Why? Was his cheap laptop malfunctioning Gary asked hastily, fearing the company’s high standards were slipping.

No, said Paul, there was nothing wrong with the laptop, it was as good as new (of course, seeing as he had built it!).

Giselle just hadn’t uploaded a photo, said Paul simply.

The room fell silent. Was he for real? Was she for real come to that? Was it possible to fall in love with someone you had never even seen a picture of?

Course it is, exclaimed Paul dismissing the others with a tutting whistle between his teeth. How could they be so shallow, feeble-minded, and so image-conscious?!

Gary, Kirstie and Alex were gobsmacked, but impressed at the same time. Gary has known Paul for years, and always had him down as a bit base. He now saw him in a totally new light.

It was only when they discovered what she did for a living that everyone sped off back to their jobs with deep groans bouncing off the walls.

Giselle was a traffic warden.

What? said Paul.

House Hunting With Eflex Computers

There has never been a better time to buy a house. Prices have dropped, and mortgages are being offered again, so it’s not a question of affordability for Eflex Computer lovebirds Gary and Kirstie.

No, the sticking point is location-location!

At the moment the parents-to-be are camping out in the storeroom at the Eflex HQ. It’s cosy, if a little claustrophobic. Pretty airless too come to that, but Kirstie has fun popping the bubble-wrap in the evening, while Gary busies himself fashioning cardboard huts. He likes to build a new one each night.

So finding a new home is quite high on the list of priorities for the pair of them, especially with a young ‘un on the way.

The sticking point?

Well, Kirstie has her eye on a two-bed job in the swanky, leafy suburbs of Beltup Vue, just off the M5.

Gary fancies the top-floor apartment in the block overlooking Molineaux. It’s been vacant for years, and the price has dropped staggeringly…and it looks right over the ground. Gary says the pitch is so lovely you would only have to look out at that, and there would be your countryside view. He reckons if you arranged some pot plants cleverly on the windowsill, you could actually create the impression of a garden from both a standing, and sitting position.

As you can tell, Gary doesn’t do gardening.

But Kirstie would adore a little patch for the young Parfitt to run around in, and has been trying to make Gary see sense.

Of course, seeing sense is what Gary is good at. After all he realised how he could make a successful business with refurbished cheap laptops, and PCs, and has built up an ever-expanding computer company.

It doesn’t help Kirstie that Paul has been sticking his oar in. Paul lives near Molineaux too, and in fact it was he who pointed out the apartment to Gary. For some reason Paul had his binoculars with him one day and just happened to be gazing up at the block of flats when he saw the “For Sale” sign on the window, and immediately rang his pal.

Gary went to have a look at lunchtime, and fell in love with the place. Paul did too, but obviously he wasn’t Kirstie, so that wasn’t much good.

Gary has been using all his business savvy to persuade Kirstie that buying this apartment actually makes sense because a) it is cheap, and b) it would be an ideal first-time buyer investment.

It would give them time to save more, and buy an even better place in a few years time, whereas if they go all out for swank now, they will find it harder to move on later.

Kirstie wasn’t sure if that was quite right at first, but Gary’s pretty good with the psychology…and Kirstie has now started to wonder.

To be honest the only thing Kirstie has really been worried about is the lifts. As we all know, lifts have a tendency to become public lavatories, and Kirstie is not too keen on the idea of going up and down in a toilet every day.

Paul says that’s easy to get over – Kirstie should just stick some bubble-wrap up her nostrils before getting into the lifts, because bubble wrap is known for its’ odour absorption. Kirstie has threatened to stuff the bubble wrap somewhere on Paul where the sun doesn’t shine.

So for now, it’s back to the storeroom and cardboard huts for Gary and Kirstie, while Paul continues to wander around the streets with his binoculars…

To be continued.